Are Circumcisions Necessary Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Are Circumcisions Necessary - Research Paper Example This paper seeks to give an in-depth analysis of circumcision outlining its merits and demerits. In the religious point of view, circumcision is observed to be commandment. From the biblical teachings, Abraham was instructed to be circumcised and all his decedents to follow that. As a result, the Jewish culture ensured that all men had to be circumcised in order to live by the religious teachings (Glass 1). Thus, circumcision is observed a means of adhering to the biblical teachings and preparing the heavenly kingdom. In the Muslim faith, circumcision derives its roots from the religious teachings (Rizvi and Hassan 1). Sexually transmitted diseases have been on the increase in the recent past and have threatened the future. Due to the illness, many persons have left their families and the number of orphans has been on the increase. Furthermore, the problem reduces the human labor of a country, which is necessary for its economic development. In a bid to address this, numerous researc hes has been conducted on the possible ways of controlling the spread of sexually transmitted infections (Barbieri 1; Jozkowski et al 1). According to a research conducted on circumcision and the spread of sexually transmitted diseases in Uganda, South Africa, and Kenya, it was observed that circumcised men were less prone to contracting STIs. Prior to the research, all persons were given same advice on how to prevent the spread of STI. In addition, circumcision is observed to reduce the chances of developing urinary tract infection and cancer of the penis. During infancy, the foreskin of a child is not retractable until the age of six month. During this period, the bacterial colonization is very high which places the child at a risk of developing urinary tract infections. Sex is essential in the reproduction of human race. In the realization of pleasure, the sensitivity of the head of the penis plays a significant part. For an uncircumcised man, the head of the penis is more sensit ive as it is usually covered from interacting with the clothing. In the case of a woman, the removal of the clitoris and the labia reduces pleasures realized during sex. Thus in terms of pleasure, circumcision reduces it by a significant margin. Circumcision usually entails conduction of a surgery. As such, it is prone to the emergence of health complications. Bleeding is a common phenomenon during circumcision. In most traditional practices, very few measures were implemented to reduce bleeding. As a result, it resulted to excessive bleeding which sometimes lead to death. Currently, there has been technological advancement, which has led to the identification and implementation of various medicines and practices that reduces bleeding. Despite this, it still poses a danger to the patients. During any surgical experiment, sterilization of the tools and equipment to be used is very necessary. This is aimed at reducing the chances of contracting infections. Despite this, some circumcis ion has resulted in the contraction of infection by the victims especially when the tools used are not properly sterilized. Furthermore, when one is circumcised, the wound provides an easy avenue for attack by disease causing organism. Thus, if proper hygiene is not maintained, then the patients may get the infection. For the case of uncircumcised men, they are not exposed to such health risks. Thus, circumcision increases the chances of post-operative infections. Many persons and organizations have continuously

Analysis of Mills Utilitarian Theory Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Analysis of Mills Utilitarian Theory - Essay Example If all persons yearn for happiness, then morality will be first rated in the society.Of essence, Mill brings out the view that utilitarianism is based on happiness, and happiness comes from justice and existence of rights in the society. In summary, Mill argues that though controversies on wrong or right overtake the theory, especially in terms of morality, the theory hold a lot of significance. A discovery of the basics of wrong and right would create a situation whereby they would be applied with a lot of ease. The ends of the actions by persons also determine what is good and what is wrong. Drawing a line between wrong and right creates a society which has some sense, since all actions are directed towards the good of the society. Of essence, Mill’s utilitarian theory is out to bring systems into place that will allow the society function not only in a just manner, but also in the fairness that it deserves. If these rules and foundations are adhered to, it is possible that the society function in an orderly manner. The views brought forward by Mill can be justified, as he bases foundations of morals throughout the work. This interprets that all actions, according to Arthur, must be analyzed in terms of their good and evil. This means the moral nature of actions determine reasoning of right or wrong. Culture and stability of the society has also been analyzed. Mill is of the opinion that morality is special in the society since it shapes the actions portrayed by individuals. This has been termed as the concept of utility

Analysis of Beer Brands in India

Analysis of Beer Brands in India Introduction Beer market has been rising quickly, especially in India beer market is rising over the previous 10 years, by virtue of the effective consequences of statistical styles and predictable transforms, like: Growing income stages: Grow in the income levels of person has direct effect the beer consumption. As the income of the people increases then the beer consumption is also increases and the Indian beer consumption is continue growing, but at a very minimum growth rate. Changing age profile: As a result of high birth rates, a huge percentage of Indian people are in the age group of 20-34 years. So, this age group is the almost suitable aim for beer marketers. That age group provides a improve enlargement of beer utilization in India. Changing lifestyles: Now the alcohol consumption has becomes the traditional feature of the Indian society but its not adapted by all. Still its adapted by those urban consumers who become more exposed to western life styles. In the present scenario women are also consuming more and more beer. Reduction in beer prices: Reduction in beer price is also responsible for rising beer consumption. The Indian customer usually values a hard drink on the base of its kick factor in opposition to its value. In India the upcoming of beer manufacturing is very much expectant because India has essentially a hot and sizzling weather and the beer drinkers in the nation are too younger than the usual beer drunkard in another place in the globe This builds them extra to be expected to bear the brand name with them for a life span (http://www.indianmba.com/Faculty_Column/FC519/fc519.html). Beer Brands in India These are brands in the Indian markets Kingfisher, Fosters Beer, Dansberg, Carlsberg, Golden Eagle, Carling Black Label, Haake Beck, Flying Horse Royal Lager, Guru, Haywards skol, Haywards 5000, Haywards 2000 Beer, Maharaja Premium Lager, Hi-Five, Heinekin, Taj Mahal, Ice, Legend, KnockOut, Kirin, Kingfisher Strong, Kingfisher Diet, London Diet, London Draft, London Pilsner, Sand Piper, San Miguel Lager, Royal Challenge, Sand Piper, Zingaro and Strohs. (http://www.indianmba.com/Faculty_Column/FC519/fc519.html). Beer industries in india In India there are many Beer Industries both Indian Industries and Foreign Industries (FDIs) are serving in India, some International Industries serves in India by having acquisitions, strategic alliance with Indian Brewing Industries. Some multinational Indian brewing industries are also serving in foreign countries their Head Office is in India but they serves in India and foreign both countries. Some foreign companies established their Head Office both in India and in their country. Some Breweries Industries in India are as under:- United Breweries Limited Mohan Meakins Radico Khaitan United Breweries Limited United Breweries Limited (UBL), United Breweries is a type of conglomerate company with a main focal point on the brewery (beer) and alcoholic beverages industry and was founded in 1857 by Scotsman, Thomas Leishman who is the real founder if the UB Group (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Breweries).On 15th March, 1915   Mr. Thomas Leishman acquired 5 breweries to form United Breweries Ltd. with its registered office at 17 Armenian Street, Chennai -1 (INDIA), then headquarter of this group is moved to Bangalore in 1950s,( http://www.kingfisherworld.com) means its a South Indian based British breweries. At the age of 22, Vittal Mallya was elected as the companys first Indian director in 1947, after a year he replace as the chairman of the company and now, Dr. Vijay Mallya (who is also a member of the Indian Parliament) is the Chairman and Owner of this UB Group (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Breweries) the UB Group are deep-rooted in the forerunner company, United Breweries Limited, also assigned to as the Beer Division of the UB Group (http://www.kingfisherworld.com) UB Group is the market manager in the Indian beer market with a 40% market stake. Its forerunner Kingfisher brand commands 25% market stake alone (http://www.indianmba.com/Faculty_Column/FC519/fc519.html). UB is the Indians largest producer of beer with market share by volume about 48%. Brands of ub group The active beers of flagship Kingfisher Brand of UB Group are:- Kingfisher Lager Kingfisher Light Lager Kingfisher Strong Lager Kingfisher Super Strong Lager Flying Horse Royal Lager Kalyani Black Label Strong Lager Premium Ice Beer Raj Cobra Taj Mahal Premium Lager (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Breweries). Mission Every company, group has its own mission or operation for accomplishing their desired target so, UB Group also have a mission which is mention under the mission statement given by the Dr. Vijay Mallya says as follows : They focused on assuming leadership in all our target market. They seek to be the most preferred employer wherever they operate. They recognize that our organization is built around people who are our most valuable asset. They will continually increase the long-term value of their Group for the benefit of our shareholders. They will operate as a decentralized organization and allow each business to develop within our stated values. They will be a major contributor to our National Economy and take full advantage of our strong resource base. They commit themselves to the ongoing mission of achieving Scientific Excellence. They will always be the partner of choice for customers, suppliers and other creators of innovative concepts (http://www.theubgroup.com/profile_mission.aspx). Human Resource Strategy Every company needs human resources to run their business and to survive so, Dr. Vijay Mallya said Our Company is committed to build an organization that is aggressive, consumer essential and market determined and its endeavour has been to be a magnet for, develop and maintain the most excellent talent available. The human resources systems and procedure are lined up to meet this intention. Over the years the organization has been capable to make an open, visible and encouraging tradition that encourages staff to deliver advanced stage of performance. Reimbursement surveys and capability evaluation exercises have been commence in order to moderate people-related risks. As an effect of these schemes, the reimbursement levels have now been standards with equivalent organizations in the industry and the capability evaluation has permitted us to sponsor people from within to take on superior responsibilities. Training and Development carries on to be a significant area of focal point for raising the capability levels in the organization to strengthen its functional and leadership foundations. (http://www.theubgroup.com/PDF/UBL_Annual_Report/UBL_Annual_Report_2008.pdf). MARKETING Strategies Marketing is mainly focus on structuring brands that ensures a huge increase in amount in market stake and be capable adequate to accept competition both locally and internationally. Kingfisher was located as a young, stimulating and enjoyable beer symbolized by its influential statement â€Å"The King of Good Times†. All communicating on the product was constant with its placing. Kingfisher was linked up with sports and shows like cricket, football, hockey, fashion shows, motor racing and horse racing to add a proportion of speed and fashion to the brand image. The UBL expend around 20% of net sales on advertisement and sponsorship, which was centered on launching of new brands and rising capacity. The corporation was de-stressing the level of seasonality and supporting utilization of beer throughout the monsoons through promotional and wakefulness campaigns. Kingfisher brand name was attributed to a local bar in the northern area as part of brand promotion scheme. The bar was not a single kingfisher beer channel, but 80% of the beer served was of United Breweries. (Mittal Amita, Cases in Strategic Management) Under the marketing strategies, United Breweries Limited has diminished the cost of its tipple beer by 28.5% from Rs2100 each drum to Rs1500 each drum earliest. A mugful of tipple beer will then price Rs25 in opposition to Rs30-35 earliest. This check marketing scheme was set up on October 16, 1998 and is only being made for Karnataka. The company says that its a new marketing strategy and not connected to its deprived functioning in the second quarter of 1998, when its net income cut down by 53% and turnover cut down by 29%. United Breweries Limited recommends expanding its Kingfisher product to vacation wear, like T-shirts and Bermudas. It suggests utilizing its set-up in many cities to advertise these products. United Breweries is using the Kingfisher brand to promote sports. UB also used same brand name for its mineral water. UB looks to have earned from its judgment to sponsor the East Bengal soccer team as the trades of the brand has raised 5 times. (http://www.faqs.org/abstracts/Business-international/THE-MUG-STRATEGY-UB-SLASHES-PRICE-OF-DRAUGHT-BEER-UB-LAUNCHES-SPECIALITY-ICE-BEER.html) Quality If we search about quality of Beer of United Breweries then we find that the (http://www.theubgroup.com/profile_mission.aspx) quality and cleanliness are the key essentials of the United Breweries manufacturing convictions. For this the Central Scientific Laboratory (CSL), whose headquarter is at Bangalore sets principles for its every breweries. Quality Management Systems put down line of ISO 9000 are rigorously stick on to regulating quality at each phase of production, from raw materials to the finish product(http://www.kingfisherworld.com). UBL also, organizing the manufacture procedure, the CSL analyses the Companys beer released market puts on ice all over the Country, the oppositions beers and beers across the world. These beers are checked as per the principles laid down by the European Brewery Convention on 40 different extents. By these principles, United Breweries beers dont just the same, but even improve on, numerous Dutch and American beers (http://www.kingfisherworld.com). Production break-up of UB UB Owned Breweries Contract Breweries Total UB Owned % 2000-01 14,84,163 5,09,146 19,93,309 74.6 2001-02 9,85,059 6,72,344 16,57,403 59.4 2002-03 12,62,025 10,50,493 23,12,518 53.3 2003-04 13,06,636 13,39,650 26,46,286 49.4 (Cases in Strategic Management) Markets of UB Government Market: In a government market, the respective state government was the wholesale distributor of beer and acquired beer directly from manufacturers based on an annual tender system, via its own agencies. The government controlled the price at which beer was procured from the manufacturer. This beer was then retailed through private vends (e.g., Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh) or a combination of government and private vends (e.g., Kerala, Delhi). Open Market: In this market, there was little or no government intervention in the pricing and distribution of beer. The manufacturers sold beer to the wholesaler/distributor who in turn sold it to the retail outlets. Pricing was free and determined by market forces. The government issued wholesale/retail licenses for a fee. However, in certain markets, new licenses were not freely available. Exports: The companys products were exported indirectly through UB Global Corporation Limited a subsidiary of UBHL. The Company had a tie-up with SN, which had a long established track record of distribution of third party brands, for the international distribution of ‘KINGFISHER. The company also entered into an exclusive Licensing and Distribution Agreement on May 24, 2004 with Independent Liquor Limited (ILL) to manufacture, package, market, distribute, and sell the products of the company in Australia and New Zealand for five-years. They worked closely with Scottish Newcastle to extend the reach of products, particularly, Kingfisher to more global markets. Kingfisher was a well-established brand in many countries and leveraging Scottish Newcastles distribution strengths would increase the franchise of the brand (Cases in Strategic Management). Beer manufacturing process The manufacturing process of beer has nine steps such as milling, mashing, filtration, wort boiling, wort cooling, fermentation, lagering, filtration then beer is ready to be packed in barrels. This process can be cleared by the image given below- http://mpstateagro.nic.in/Project%20Reports%20pdf/BREWERY.pdf Milling: For capable evocation with water, malt must be crushed. Early on milling processes used stones compelled by hand or by water or animal power, but current brewing uses automatically compelled roller mills. The chart of the mill and the space among the rolls are important in acquiring the accurate reduction in mass of the malt. The aim is to hold on to the husk comparably perfect while breaking up the frangible, customized starch into particles (http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/58378/beer/236419/Milling). Mashing: Mashing is the process of mixing crushed grain (usually malted or cracked grain) with water, and heat-up this mixture with remains at certain temperature (www.sterkensbrew.be/sbm/beer_making.html) and this temperature should be between 150-158 degrees F for just about one hour (www.homebrewmart.com/recipes.html) to allow bacterias in the malt to smash down the starch in the grain into sugars, usually maltose (www.sterkensbrew.be/sbm/beer_making.html). Filtration or Mash Filter: A mash filter is a plate-and-frame filter. The vacant frames have the smash, counting the exhausted grains, and have a capability of approximately one hectoliter. The plates contain a affirm body structure for the filter cloths the plates, frames, and filter cloths are ordered in a carrier frame like so: frame, cloth, plate, cloth, with plates at every end of the arrangement. Newer mash filters contain vesicae that can push the fluid out of the grains between spargings. The grain does not perform similar to a filtration medium in a mash filter (www.sterkensbrew.be/sbm/beer_making.html). Wort Boiling: Boiling the gained distills, called wort, assures its infertility, and thus keeps a lot of infections. For the duration of the boil suds are added, which give bitterness, taste, and fragrance complexes to the beer, and, beside with the heat of the boil, induces proteins in the wort to condense and the pH of the wort to drop. At last, the vapors developed through the boil volatilize off tastes, together with dimethyl sulfide usher. The boil must be carried on so that is it even and acute. The boil lasts between 50 and 120 minutes, calculating on its strength, the hop addition agenda, and volume of wort the brewer anticipates evaporating (www.sterkensbrew.be/sbm/beer_making.html). Wort Cooling: After malt filtration process, the wort must be cut down to temperatures of fermentation prior to yeast is added. In present breweries this is accomplished through a plate temperature exchanger. A plate temperature exchanger has lots of ribbed plates, which form two abstracted paths. The wort is distend into the temperature exchanger, and goes throughout each other space among the plates. The cooling measures, generally water, goes through the other spaces. The ribbed in the plates make sure disordered flow. The last few plates frequently use cooling measures which can be refrigerated to below the sub-zero point, which allows a better-quality control over the wort-out temperature, and also facilitates cooling around 10  °C. After cooling, oxygen is frequently dissolved into the wort to refresh the yeast and support its procreation (www.sterkensbrew.be/sbm/beer_making.html). Fermentation: Fermentation, as a stair in the brewing procedure, initiates the moment yeast is added to the chilled wort. This is also the position at which the creation is first called beer. It is through this phase that sugars won from the malt are metabolized into alcohol and carbon dioxide. Most breweries nowadays use cylindroconical tanks, or CCTs, have a conical (pointed) base and a cylindrical top. The cones space is usually 60 °, an angle that will allocate the yeast to flow in the direction of the cones top, but is not so sharp as to take up too much vertical gap. CCTs can switch both fermenting and refining in the same tank. At the end of fermentation, the yeast and other frozen which have dropped to the cones top can be simply swill out a dock at the peak. Then, the tanks to allow the CO2 generate by the yeast to typically carbonate the beer. This spile device can be place to a set pressure to match the kind of beer being generated. The more pressure the spile holds back, the more carbonated the beer developed (www.sterkensbrew.be/sbm/beer_making.html). Lagering or Conditioning:After the fermentation process, next procedure is conditioning or developing the carbon dioxide to provide the beer its white foamy head (http://www.kingfisherworld.com).When the sugars in the fermenting beer have been more or less totally digested, the fermentation slows down and the yeast begins to settle to the bottom of the container. At this stage, the beer is refrigerated to around freezing, which promotes settling of the yeast, and causes proteins to curdled and settle out with the yeast. Unlikable flavors such as phenolic composites become unsolvable in the cold beer, and the beers aroma happens to smoother. For the period of this time force is maintained on the containers to forestall the beer from going flat. If the fermentation containers have chilling jackets on them, as opposite to the entire fermentation basement being chilled, conditioning can happen in the same tank as fermentation. Other than different tanks (in a separate basement) must be employed (www.sterkensbrew.be/sbm/beer_making.html). Filtration: Filtering the beer become stable the flavor, and provide beer its polished shine and blaze. Not all beer is filtered. Filters arrive in many types. Many use pre-made filtration media like sheets or candles, while others use a fine powder made of, for instance, diatomite, also called diatomaceous earth or kieselguhr, which is initiated into the beer and recirculated past screens to form a filtration bed. Filters series from rough filters that eliminate much of the yeast and any solids (e.g. hops, grain particles) left in the beer, to filters tight as much as necessary to sprain color and body from the beer. Generally used filtration ratings are divided into rough, fine and sterile. Rough filtration leaves some muddiness (cloudiness) in the beer, but it is observably clearer than unfiltered beer. Well filtration grants a glass of beer that you could read a newspaper through, with no detectable muddiness. Finally, as its name involves, hygienic filtration is fine as much as necessary that almost all microorganisms in the beer are detached during the filtration process (www.sterkensbrew.be/sbm/beer_making.html). Packaging: Packaging is placing the beer into the tanks in which it will depart the brewery. Normally this means in bottles and barrels, but it might contain cans or bulk tanks for high-number customers (www.sterkensbrew.be/sbm/beer_making.html). So, this is the full process of manufacturing of beer in industries but, some industries follow some additional steps at the time of manufacturing of beer. Strategic alliance Upon entering the new millennium, the UB Group became more focused on becoming the second largest marketer of Spirits products in the world. With the acquisition of Shaw Wallace Company Limited, this Division owned twelve millionaire brands. The market share of the Spirits Division in India was 50%, and exports to the Middle East, Africa, and Asian countries were growing rapidly (Cases in Strategic Management). In addition, United Breweries Limited has also enrolled into mutli-faceted strategic alliance with Scottish NewCastle Plc (SN), an international brewery major, with $6 billion in proceeds and a market capitalization of $5.4 billion. This alliance, distant from having a joint venture in India, will permit SN to market it International brand names like Kronenbourg in India, while UBL will develop SNs global network to further globalize its Kingfisher (http://www.kingfisherworld.com). Conclusion United Breweries Limited is the India based breweries and spreading all over the world with successful brand name â€Å"Kingfisher†. This brand Kingfisher has been ranked amongst the top 10 flashing raising brands in the UK (http://www.kingfisherworld.com). Another subsidiaries of UB Group United Sprits Limited is also spreading all over the world with brand name â€Å"McDowells†, McDowells No.1 is the largest selling brandy all over the world. The policies of United Breweries are suitable for Indian market and that is why this company has got a grand success with in 10 years. If this company is interested to operate in some other countries, it has to revise its policies to get success in another country which will include marketing policies and pricing policies.

The Crisis in Darfur, Sudan Essay -- Racism Genocide History Essays

The Crisis in Darfur, Sudan Genocide, the attempt to destroy a people because of their presumed race or ethnicity, remains alive and well. The definition of genocide as given in the Webster's Dictionary is 'The deliberate and systematic extermination of a national, racial, political, or cultural group.' This definition depicts the situation in 1994 of Rwanda, a small and poor central African country. What makes this crisis particularly shocking is the structural character of the violence: villages have been torched, and civilians have been deliberately targeted by bombing, summary executions, massacres and systematic rape as part of a strategy of fear instigated by the Sudanese military and the so-called Janjaweed, armed and supported by the government of Sudan. The crisis in Darfur has therefore demanded both a humanitarian and a political response. The political response has consisted of increased pressure on the Sudanese government to disarm the Janjaweed, ensure security and allow aid agencies into Darfur to provide humanitarian aid. Humanitarian needs include food, shelter, water, health, sanitation and nutrition. But more than that, the structural violence against civilians means that there is an urgent need for protection, as systematic abuse, rape and displacement continue unabated. As international pressure on the Sudanese government led to improved access conditions during 2004, the humanitarian presence in Darfur increased significantly. By December 2004...

Summer Romance (Anti-Gravity Love Song)

Jazz is a style of music that integrates with strong, convoluted rythms. Jazz is traces its origins from the basic principles of Blues music. It is solely based on a pattern of succession of two or more distinct sounds, wherein the a sound of a particular instrument is complemented by the other in perfect harmony. Jazz also highly involves emotion in playing. This may vary according to the mood, experience, and interactions with other people. In this sense jazz's key components may be augmented when played.The piece, Summer Romance (Anti-Gravity Love Song) is a Jazz piece performed by the band Incubus. The musical piece, though performed by contemporary musicians, arranged the piece with respect to the conventional elements of Jazz. The song is a harmony of string instruments accompanied by drums and percussion plus a saxophone to add more emotion. The piece, according to Sara Shaw insinuates a lively feel similar to the implications of Disco Music during the 1970sSummer Romance (Ant i-Gravity Love Song) is a song that brings out a â€Å"Jazzy† feel. Its tempo is is not as fast to cause an adrenalin rush, however, the beat of the drums and the percussion compliments are enthusiastic to provoke a listener to dance into the song. The song Summer Romance (Anti-Gravity Love Song) applies the musical concept of an ensemble, particularly of a quintet. The string instruments, percussions and brass instruments are accompanied by vocals that complete the musical piece.However, as far as texture is concerned an additional string instrument such as a jazz guitar could provide more rhythm to add more ebullience to the piece. The tempo is just moderate enough for the piece and the saxophone solo is the icing to the cake. The lack of rhythm did not hinder the piece to express its feel nor the idea that it suggests. Works Cited Shaw Sara. â€Å"Music For Once That Has Meaning† 8 July 2001. Amazon. co. uk. 28 November 2007 http://www. dooyoo. co. uk/music-records/ s-c-i-e-n-c-e-incubus/296431/

Computer Operating Systems

ICT 100: Introduction to Information and Communications Technology Unit 3: Operating Systems Objectives: ? ? ? ? ? ? ? Define the term software Differentiate between system software and application software Define the terms operating system and utility program Identify the types of operating systems Explain the boot process of a computer Describe the functions of an operating system Identify common utility programs Software, also called a program, consists of a series of related instructions, organized for a common purpose, that tells the computer what tasks to perform and how to perform them.The two categories of software are system software and application software. System Software System software consists of the programs that control or maintain the operations of the computer and its devices. System software serves as the interface between the user, the application software, and the computer’s hardware. It includes the following: 1. Operating Systems 2. Library Programs 3. Utility Programs Operating Systems An operating system (OS) is a set of programs containing instructions that work together to coordinate all the activities among computer hardware resources.Every computer needs an operating system to act as an interface between the user and the computer hardware. It allows the user to perform tasks without having to know how they are done. For example, a user can give a command to save a file on disk without having to know where the file will be stored or how it will be retrieved again. When a command is given to print a document, the user does not have to be concerned with the details of how the printer works – a program called a device driver takes care of the details. ICT 100 – Operating Systems Page 1 of 9The operating system that a computer uses sometimes is called the platform. With purchased application software, the package or specifications identify the required platform (operating system). A cross-platform program is one tha t runs the same on multiple operating systems. Application programs are usually written to work with a particular operating system, so that a word processor, which works with Windows, will not work on an Apple Mac, which has a different operating system. When purchasing application software, ensure that it works with the operating system installed on your computer or mobile device.The Bootstrap Process The process of starting or restarting a computer is called booting. When turning on a computer that has been powered off completely, you are performing a cold boot. A warm boot is the process of using the operating system to restart a computer. A warm boot properly closes any running processes and programs; however, it does not save any unsaved work. Thus, always remember to save your work before rebooting (restarting) a computer. Each time you boot a computer, the kernel and other frequently used operating system instructions are loaded, or copied, from storage into the computer†™s memory (RAM).The kernel is the core of an operating system that manages memory and devices, maintains the computer’s clock, starts programs, and assigns the computer’s resources, such as devices, programs, data, and information. The kernel is memory resident, which means it remains in memory while the computer is running. Other parts of the operating system are nonresident, that is, these instructions remain on a storage medium until they are needed. When you boot a computer, a series of messages may appear on the screen. The actual information displayed varies depending on the make and type of the computer and the equipment installed.The boot process, however, is similar for large and small computers. The steps of the bootstrap process are given and explained below: Step 1: The power supply sends a signal to the components in the system unit. When you turn on the computer, the power supply sends an electrical signal to the components in the system unit. Step 2: T he processor finds the ROM chip(s) that contains the BIOS. The charge of electricity causes the processor chip to reset itself and find the ROM chip(s) that contains the BIOS. The BIOS (pronounced BYE-ose), which stands for basic input/output system, is firmware that contains the computer’s start-up instructions.ICT 100 – Operating Systems Page 2 of 9 Step 3: The BIOS performs the POST, which checks components, such as the mouse, keyboard, and adapter cards. The BIOS executes a series of tests to make sure the computer hardware is connected properly and operating correctly. The tests, collectively called the power-on self test (POST ), check the various system components including the buses, system clock, adapter cards, RAM chips, mouse, keyboard, and drives. As the POST executes, LEDs (tiny lights) flicker on devices such as the disk drives and keyboard.Beeps also may sound, and messages may appear on the screen. Step 4: The results of the POST are compared with data in a CMOS chip. The POST results are compared with data in a CMOS chip. CMOS is a technology that uses battery power to retain information when the computer is off. The CMOS chip stores configuration information about the computer, such as the amount of memory; type of disk drives, keyboard, and monitor; the current date and time; and other startup information. It also detects any new devices connected to the computer.If any problems are identified, the computer may beep, display error messages, or cease operating — depending on the severity of the problem. Step 5: The BIOS may look for the system files on a USB flash drive or on an optical disc drive or may look directly on drive C (hard disk). If the POST completes successfully, the BIOS searches for specific operating system files called system files. The BIOS may look first to see if a USB flash drive plugged in a USB port or a disc in an optical disc drive contains the system files, or it may look directly on drive C (th e designation usually iven to the first hard disk) for the system files. Step 6: The system files and the kernel of the operating system load into memory (RAM) from storage (i. e. , hard disk). Once located, the system files load into memory (RAM) from storage (usually the hard disk) and execute. Next, the kernel of the operating system loads into memory. Then, the operating system in memory takes control of the computer. Step 7: The operating system loads configuration information, may request user information, starts several background processes, and displays the desktop on the screen. The operating system loads system configuration information.Necessary operating system files are loaded into memory. On some computers, the operating system verifies that the person attempting to use the computer is a legitimate user. Finally, the desktop and icons are displayed on the screen. The operating system executes programs in the Startup folder, which contains a list of programs that open a utomatically when you boot the computer. ICT 100 – Operating Systems Page 3 of 9 Figure 1 The bootstrap process Shut down options including powering off the computer, placing the computer in sleep mode, and hibernating the computer.Sleep mode saves any open documents and programs to RAM, turns off all unneeded functions, and then places the computer in a low-power state. If, for some reason, power is removed from a computer that is in sleep mode, any unsaved work could be lost. Hibernate, by contrast, saves any open documents and programs to a hard disk before removing power from the computer. Operating System Functions Operating systems perform the following functions: (1) manage resources, (2) manage backing store, (3) handle interrupts, (4) provides a user interface, (5) provide networking capabilities, (6) provide security. . Manage Resources The operating system keeps track of all resources (CPU, disk, memory, files, input and output devices etc. ). Through scheduling it decides what process gets what resource, when it gets it, ICT 100 – Operating Systems Page 4 of 9 how much and for how long. This is called allocation of resources. Resources can also be taken away from a process. This is called de-allocation of resources. Memory Management Computers are capable of holding several programs in memory simultaneously so that a user can switch from one application to another.The purpose of memory management is to optimize the use of random access memory (RAM). The operating system allocates, or assigns, data and instructions to an area of memory while they are being processed. Then, it carefully monitors the contents of memory. Finally, the operating system releases these items from being monitored in memory when the processor no longer requires them. If there is no memory management then one program might accidentally address the memory space occupied by another. This would result in corrupting programs with potentially disastrous results.Virtu al memory is used when sufficient physical RAM is not available. Part of a hard disk is allocated to be used as if it were main memory. The speed of access is very slow compared to RAM access speed. File Management The file management part of an operating system has four basic functions: 1. To allocate space on the storage device to hold each file stored, and to deallocate space when a file is deleted. Space is usually divided into fixed size allocation units (addressable blocks) of say 512 or 1024 bytes. 2. To keep track of the allocation units occupied by each file.Files may be split over several allocation units, not necessarily contiguous (i. e. together). A file may initially occupy one unit of 512 bytes, and then when updated by a user, need extra space which may have to be found somewhere else on the disk. 3. To control file access rights and permissions. 4. To map logical file addresses to physical addresses. For example, a physical disk may be split into several logical dri ves C, D, E, F, G. Managing Programs Some operating systems support a single user and only one running program at a time. Others support thousands of users running multiple programs.How an operating system handles programs directly affects your productivity. A single user/single tasking operating system allows only one user to run one program at a time. A single user/multitasking operating system allows a single user to work on two or more programs that reside in memory at the same time. When a computer is running multiple programs concurrently, one program is in the foreground and the others are in the background. ICT 100 – Operating Systems Page 5 of 9 The one in the foreground is the active program, that is, the one you currently are using.The other programs running but not in use are in the background. A multiuser operating system enables two or more users to run programs simultaneously. Networks, servers, mainframes, and super computers allow hundreds to thousands of use rs to connect at the same time, and thus are multiuser. A multiprocessing operating system supports two or more processors running programs at the same time. Multiprocessing involves the coordinated processing of programs by more than one processor. Multiprocessing increases a computer’s processing speed. 2.Manage Backing Store The operating system is responsible for the transfer of data from secondary storage (e. g. disk) to memory and vice versa. It also has to maintain a directory of the disk so that files and free spaces can be quickly located. 3. Handle Interrupts The operating system detects interrupts (such as the click of the mouse or a process indicating that it is finished with the processor) and then performs the necessary task (such as allowing the processor to be used by another process). 4. Provide a User Interface You interact with software through its user interface.That is, a user interface controls how you enter data and instructions and how information is d isplayed on the screen. The operating system acts as a user interface between the user and the machine. Command-Line Interface To configure devices, manage system resources, and troubleshoot network connections, network administrators and other advanced users work with a commandline interface. In a command-line interface, a user types commands or presses special keys on the keyboard (such as function keys or key combinations) to enter data and instructions. Graphical User Interface Most users today work with a graphical user interface.With a graphical user interface (GUI), you interact with menus and visual images such as buttons and other graphical objects to issue commands. Many current GUI operating systems incorporate features similar to those of a Web browser, such as links and navigation buttons (i. e. , Back button and Forward button). Some GUI operating systems provide access to command-line interfaces. Menu-driven Interface User is presented with a range of options from whi ch to choose ICT 100 – Operating Systems Page 6 of 9 Form Interface A user interface in which the computer outputs separate prompt and response fields for a number of inputs.Natural Language – the interface consists of standard languages such as English, Spanish, French, and Dutch etc. 5. Provide Networking Capabilities Some operating systems have networking capabilities built in, others are creating specifically for managing networks, e. g. server operating systems. Networking capabilities include organizing and coordinating how multiple users access and share resources on a network. Resources include hardware, software, data, and information. For example, a server operating system allows multiple users to share a printer, Internet access, files, and programs.The network administrator, the person overseeing network operations, uses the server operating system to add and remove users, computers, and other devices to and from the network. The network administrator also uses the server operating system to install software and administer network security. 6. Provide Security Computer and network administrators typically have an administrator account that enables them to access all files and programs on the computer or network, install programs, and specify settings that affect all users on a computer or network.Settings include creating user accounts and establishing permissions. These permissions define who can access certain resources and when they can access those resources. For each user, the computer or network administrator establishes a user account, which enables a user to access, or log on to, a computer or a network. Each user account typically consists of a user name and password. A user name, or user ID, is a unique combination of characters, such as letters of the alphabet or numbers that identifies one specific user. Many users select a combination of their first and last names as their user name.A user named Henry Baker might choose H Baker as his user name. A password is a private combination of characters associated with the user name that allows access to certain computer resources. Some operating systems allow the computer or network administrator to assign passwords to files and commands, restricting access to only authorized users. After entering a user name and password, the operating system compares the user’s entry with a list of authorized user names and passwords. If the entry matches the user name and password ICT 100 – Operating Systems Page 7 of 9 ept on file, the operating system grants the user access. If the entry does not match, the operating system denies access to the user. To protect sensitive data and information further as it travels over a network, the operating system may encrypt it. Encryption is the process of encoding data and information into an unreadable form. Administrators can specify that data be encrypted as it travels over a network to prevent unauthorized users f rom reading the data. When an authorized user attempts to read the data, it automatically is decrypted, or converted back into a readable form. Types of Operating SystemsOperating systems can be divided into the three following types: 1. Stand-alone 2. Server 3. Embedded Stand-Alone Operating System A stand-alone operating system is a complete operating system that works on a desktop computer, notebook computer, or mobile computing device. Some stand-alone operating systems can work in conjunction with a server operating system (here it functions as a client operating system); others include networking capabilities allowing users to set up small networks (e. g. home or small business network). Examples of currently used stand-alone operating systems are Windows 7, Mac OS X, UNIX, and Linux.Server Operating System A server operating system is an operating system that is designed specifically to support a network. These operating systems can support all sizes of networks from small to large-sized networks and Web servers. A server operating system typically resides on a server and provides client machines with access to resources. Examples of server operating systems include Windows Server 2008, UNIX, Linux, Solaris, and NetWare. Embedded Operating System The operating system on mobile devices and many consumer electronics, called an embedded operating system, resides on a ROM chip.Most handheld computers and small devices use embedded operating systems. Popular embedded operating systems today include Windows Embedded CE, Windows Mobile, Palm OS, iPhone OS, BlackBerry, Google Android, embedded Linux, and Symbian OS. ICT 100 – Operating Systems Page 8 of 9 Library Programs A library program is available to all users of a multi-user computer system, typically to carry out common tasks required by everyone. For example a routine that searches for lost files or restores corrupted files may be stored in a library. Utility ProgramsA utility program, also calle d a utility, is a type of system software that allows a user to perform maintenance-type tasks, usually related to managing a computer, its devices, or its programs. Most operating systems include several built-in utility programs. Users can also buy stand-alone utility programs. Utility programs perform common tasks that thousands of computer users need to do at some time or another, such as searching for files, viewing images, backing up files and disks, uninstalling programs, defragmenting disks, burning optical discs, and so on.One common utility is compression software such as WinZip that ‘zips’ files so that they occupy less space. This is very useful if your want to transmit a graphic or large data file over the Internet, as the transmission time will be much reduced. References Shelly, G. B, Vermaat, M. E. (2010). Discovering Computers 2011. Boston, MA: Course Technology Daley, B. (2008). Computers Are Your Future 2007. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education Heathcote, P. M, Langfield, S. (2004). ‘A’ Level Computing, 5th edition. Oxford: Payne-Gallway Publishers Ltd ICT 100 – Operating Systems Page 9 of 9